Define risk and uncertainty and explain the different types of risk How are decisions taken under risk and uncertaintyWhat are different generations of computers Explain with examples of compute?

Answer 1

And: The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about each generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we use today. First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make Artificial Intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and Nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Trends in Hardware/Software

Trends in Hardware:- Convergence of telecommunications and hardware platforms is the core of the recent trends in computing technology. This type of convergence provides different organization and individuals to access the date sources by using various electronic devices. Today TV is now converged with telecommunications for Internet applications. Today the latest trends in computing are Grid Computing, On-Demand Computing i.e., utility computing, Autonomic Computing and Edge Computing etc.,

Grid Computing:- In this, the computers which are geographically remote are connected into a single network. This system creates a virtual supercomputer by combing all the computers together. Here the internet connections can access the remote machines and have huge quantities of data.

On-demand Computing:- It enables the firms to have the computing power just enough for it. Generally firms purchase computing power from central computing facilities, in this way the firms can reduce investment in information technology infrastructure.

Autonomic Computing:- At present, computing systems are becoming more complex. Autonomic computing is an effort to develop a system that can configure itself, optimize and tune itself, heal itself when broken, and protect itself from intruders and self-destruction. It automatically detects, diagnoses, and repairs localized software and hardware problems.

Edge Computing:- It means there are many computers located remotely on the network using Internet. There are tree tiers in the edge computing i.e., local client, edge computing platform and organizations computing platform. Here each computing platform will maintain thousands of edge servers.

Trends in Software:- Today no one can say what is the recent trend in software technology, as of today there is no guarantee about the trend in software because the software applications are changing like a rates of glossary and fuel. Any way the following are the major emerging trends in software, they are Open-Source Software, Java, Web Services and Software Outstanding.

Open-source Software:- This is free and can be modified by any of the user/users. It developed by the community of the programmers around the world.It can be used for any operating system and hardware technology with out restriction of copyright and patent law. Now a days Linux is the most popular open-source software which created by a Finnis Programmer.

Java:- It is an object oriented programming language, which operating the system independent and processor-independent. It is very popular because it can handle text, data, graphics, sound and video, all with one programme.

Prepared: Mr. G. Lakshman Rao, M.Com,M.Phil,E.com, LLB Rayagada, Orissa.