Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget portrayed children as active and motivated learners who, through numerous interactions with their physical and social environments, construct an increasingly complex understanding of the world around them. He proposed that cognitive development proceeds through four stages: (1) the sensorimotor stage (when cognitive functioning is based primarily on behaviors and perceptions); (2) the preoperational stage (when symbolic thought and language become prevalent, but reasoning is "illogical" by adult standards); (3) the concrete operations stage (when logical reasoning capabilities emerge but are limited to concrete objects and events); and (4) the formal operations stage (when thinking about abstract, hypothetical, and contrary-to-fact ideas becomes possible). Developmental researchers have found that Piaget probably underestimated the capabilities of infants, preschoolers, and elementary schoolchildren, and overestimated the capabilities of adolescents. Researchers have found, too, that children's reasoning on particular tasks depends somewhat on their prior knowledge, experience, and formal schooling relative to those tasks. Contemporary developmentalists doubt that cognitive development can really be characterized as a series of general stages that pervade children's thinking in diverse content domains. A few theorists, known as neo-Piagetians, propose that children acquire more specific systems of concepts and thinking skills relevant to particular domains and that these systems may change in a stagelike manner. Many others instead suggest that children exhibit more gradual trends in a variety of abilities. However, virtually all contemporary theorists acknowledge the value of Piaget's research methods and his views about motivation, the construction of knowledge, and the appearance of qualitative changes in cognitive development.
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development Vygotsky proposed that adults promote children's cognitive development both by passing along the meanings that their culture assigns to objects and events and by assisting children with challenging tasks. Social activities are often precursors to, and form the basis for, complex mental processes: Children initially use new skills in the course of interacting with adults or peers and slowly internalize these skills for their own, independent use. Often, children first experiment with adult tasks and ways of thinking within the context of their early play activities. Contemporary theorists have extended Vygotsky's theory in several directions. For instance, some suggest that adults can help children benefit from their experiences through joint construction of meanings, guided participation, and cognitive apprenticeships. Others recommend that adults engage children and adolescents in authentic, adultlike tasks, initially providing enough scaffolding that youngsters can accomplish those tasks successfully and gradually withdrawing it as proficiency increases. And most developmentalists believe that children's play activities prepare them for adult life by allowing them to practice a variety of adultlike behaviors and to develop skills in planning, cooperation, problem solving, and self-restraint.
Comparing Piagetian and Vygotskian PerspectivesChallenge, readiness, and social interaction are central to the theories of both Piaget and Vygotsky. However, the two perspectives differ on the role of language in cognitive development, the relative value of free exploration versus more structured and guided activities, the relative importance of interactions with peers versus adults, and the influence of culture.
Mental process
Both men were psychotherapists. Adler used more of cognitive behavioral therapy. Jung was more of a spiritualist and was not taken as seriously.
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How Can Citizen Perspectives Differ?
Humanism positively encourages a person to take charge of his or her own fate in a reasonable fashion. Unlike other theories, it emphasizes what goes right rather than what goes wrong in personality development.
Mental process
Mental processes
Growth is the process of becoming larger. Development is the process of becoming more complex.
The organizational chart is a reflection of the completed and implemented organizational development.
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childhood
They are thought to have separate paths of evolutionary development.
Depending on the context of the word, growth and development can mean pretty much the same thing - they're synonyms.
Both men were psychotherapists. Adler used more of cognitive behavioral therapy. Jung was more of a spiritualist and was not taken as seriously.
Lazarus's cognitive-mediation theory focuses on how cognitive appraisals of a situation mediate the emotional response. It suggests that when individuals appraise a situation as having personal relevance or as a threat, they experience emotional arousal. On the other hand, the Schachter-Singer cognitive arousal theory proposes that emotional experiences arise from the interpretation of physiological arousal, which is then given meaning through cognitive labeling. Thus, while Lazarus's theory emphasizes cognitive appraisals, the Schachter-Singer theory emphasizes the interpretation of physiological arousal.
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